Genetics And Human Growth!

The spine, or backbone, is a column of separate bones called vertebrae. The main roles of the spine are to support the body and to provide protection for the spinal cord, which is the large bundle of nerves that connects the brain to the rest of the body. The vertebrae are linked by ligaments and pads of a flexible material called fibrocartillage. A baby is born with 33 separate vertebrae, but as the child grows and develops the vertebrae at the bottom of the spine fuse together to form two bones called the sacrum and the coccyx. The sacrum is connected to the hipbones and is made up of five fused vertebrae. The coccyx is at the very end of the spine and is made up of four tiny vertebrae. The remaining 24 vertebrae make up the rest of the adult spine. These 24 vertebrae, commonly known as the backbone, can be divided into three areas. The seven vertebrae in the top of the backbone form the neck and are called the cervical vertebrae. The next twelve vertebrae are the thoracic vertebrae, and they connect to the rib cage. The five vertebrae that make up the lower back are called the lumbar vertebrae, and they carry most of the weight in our backs, making them are the largest vertebrae in the spine. Our backbone is designed to allow us to stand up vertically. When a baby is born, the spine is curved, but this changes as the baby begins to crawl and walk. By the time a baby can walk, the spine has developed the S-shaped curve that adult spines have. If this curvature becomes distorted through standing badly or because of a disease, it can lead to severe back pain and problems moving.

Gene are tiny strings of chemicals inside our body cells which contain the coded information that enables our body to grow, develop and function. We inherit half our genes from our father and half from our mother. We all have about 35,000 inherited genes and there's a complete copy of them in the nucleus of almost every cell in our body. Genes are made of a substance called DNA (DeoxyriboNucleic Acid) which looks like a long twisting ladder - the famous double helix. There are two metres of DNA in each cell nucleus. Most of it is outside our genes, but it is the DNA inside our genes that controls heredity. DNA is composed of four different types of a chemical unit known as bases, or letters. These bases are A, T, G and C (adenine, thymine, guanine and cytosine). They are arranged like steps on a ladder. Each step consists of a linked pair (called a base pair) of amino acids. Base pairs appear over and over again in varying sequences. A always links with T and C always links with G - so, for example, a tiny part of a sequence might go: AT AT TA AT CG TA CG GC CG TA. The precise sequence and combination of these pairs on the DNA ladder is the code that our genes use to do their job - which is to give instructions for the manufacture of the many proteins needed for the formation and functioning of our body throughout our lives. Biological machinery in the cell reads the gene's genetic code and carries out its orders.

Genes are strung together into chromosomes All our genes are packed into thread-like structures in the cell nucleus called chromosomes. These normally come in pairs. Our brain handles much od the determining factors wgich control these functions.

In humans, for example, the full set of 46 chromosomes is made up of 23 same-shaped pairs. Each chromosome pair is made up of one chromosome from the mother and one from the father. Because chromosomes come in pairs, the genes the chromosomes carry also come in pairs. So each cell carries two copies of almost every one of that individual's genes, one copy on each of the paired chromosomes, which means there are usually two separate sets of instructions for that gene's function. The only exception to this is the so-called sex chromosomes, where – if you are male – the two chromosomes are different from one another and so there is only one copy of some genes. Although most of the cells in the human body – skin cells, muscle cells and so on – contain 46 chromosomes inside the nucleus, there is one important exception: the sex cells, or gametes. These cells – sperm in males and eggs in females – contain only 23 chromosomes, half the normal number. To understand why, think what would happen if a sperm and egg each contained the usual 46 chromosomes. When the sperm and egg fused at fertilisation, the total number of chromosomes in the first cell of a new life would be 46 + 46 = 92. Every generation the number of chromosomes would double and soon there would be no room in the cell for anything but chromosomes. Halving the number of chromosomes means that when sperm and egg join, the original number of 46 chromosomes is restored.

Junk DNA as well as gene DNA Most of the DNA in our chromosomes actually lies outside our genes. Quite what all this surplus DNA - sometimes known as 'junk DNA' - does is not yet known, though it could be 'dead genes' - old inactive DNA, including DNA inserted during virus infections, that has been automatically copied and passed down from generation to generation. This junk DNA (which is being mapped by the Human Genome Project together with the gene DNA) varies much more between individuals than our genes do. So it is a very reliable way of tracing family relationships and identifying people. There may be as many as a million differences in the DNA sequences of two unrelated peopled. Almost every cell carries all the genes

Just about every one of the billions of cells that make up your body carries an identical copy of your own unique genetic recipe. Although all cells have the same basic design, cells are specialised to perform particular roles within the body. The appearance and function of skin cells, for example, is quite different to that of muscle cells. Given that all the cells have an identical genetic recipe, how is it that they end up doing different jobs?

The human genetic recipe contains all the information necessary for the tens of thousands of proteins needed by the body. But any one type of cell will only use a fraction of the total recipe.

Cells only produce the proteins appropriate to their function. Skin cells, for example, produce lots of keratin, a protein that gives toughness and protection where it is most needed – on the outside of the body.

But they don't produce haemoglobin, the protein used by red blood cells to carry oxygen around the body. Since skin cells do not need to transport oxygen around the body, there is little point in them producing this protein.

Each gene codes for a different protein

A typical gene consists of several thousand base pairs and the entire human genome (which includes all our genes as well as a lot of 'junk' information in-between them - in other words all our DNA) contains some three billion base pairs.

Each gene contains the DNA code for a different protein in the body and, together, our genes form the instruction book for every newly developing embryo. They determine not only the way we look, like our height, build and eye and hair colour, but also how our body works - its strengths, weaknesses and susceptibility to disease. Aspects of our personality, such as intelligence or talent, may also be influenced by our genes. In each cell only some genes are switched on

So how are cells able to be selective about which proteins they make? It all comes back to genes.

Genes can be turned on or off like light switches. When a gene is in the 'on' position a protein can be made. But when the gene is in the 'off' position, no protein is made. Cells are different from one another because they have different combinations of genetic switches turned on.

This genetic switching is what enables a single fertilised cell to develop into a complex human being.

When a male sperm fuses with a female egg, the fertilised egg formed is the first cell of a new life. It contains a mixture of genes from the mother and the father. All the genetic information necessary for the subsequent development of the embryo is contained in the DNA of that single cell. The single cell divides again and again, eventually forming billions of cells, each with a set of genes identical to those in the fertilised egg. While this is happening, a precise and ordered sequence of genetic switching takes place.

As the cells divide and grow, specific combinations of genes are turned on or off. The combination of genes turned on in one cell affects which genes are turned on in neighbouring cells, so that as the embryo continues to grow, cells become specialised and organised into the different tissues and organs of the body.

Nine months after conception we emerge into the world with all our bits and pieces just where they should be. Skin on the outside, muscle, bones and organs on the inside; mouth at the head end and feet on the ends of our legs.

Tiny genetic diffe rences make us each individual

A parent and child share 99.95 per cent of the information in their genes. But this doesn't seem so special when you consider that we share 99.90 per cent of our genetic information with everyone else on earth. We also share 98.5 per cent with chimpanzees and 40 -50 per cent with bananas and cabbages! So our genes connect us not only with our immediate ancestors, our parents, grandparents and so on, but also with all our evolutionary relatives.

Human beings, chimps, insects, oak trees, seaweed and bacteria, to name but a few, are all very closely related, and our genes play a crucial part in the similarities and differences we see between ourselves and all other living things.

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GENETICS AND HUMAN GROWTH ?

Genetics And Human Growth!